Chapter 2 Terms, Concepts And Their Use In Sociology

I Introduction

The previous chapter introduced the core idea of sociology: exploring the interplay between society and the individual. It established that individuals are not isolated but are connected through various collective bodies like family, tribe, caste, class, clan, and nation.

This chapter expands on this by examining the nature of these collective bodies, including the types of groups people form, the systems of structured inequality (stratification) they exist within, how social control is exercised, and the roles and statuses individuals occupy.

In essence, the chapter begins to explore the fundamental workings of society, considering questions about harmony versus conflict, the fixedness of status and roles, the mechanisms of social control, and the forms of inequality.

A central question addressed is why sociology requires a specific set of technical terms and concepts, even for things we commonly discuss in everyday life using terms like 'status', 'roles', or 'social control'.

While disciplines dealing with unfamiliar subjects clearly need new terminology, sociology requires specialised terms precisely because its subject matter—society and social institutions—is so familiar to us.

This familiarity can lead to a conflation of sociological knowledge with common sense or naturalistic explanations, preventing us from seeing social realities clearly and precisely (as discussed in Chapter 1).

Sociological concepts, like the discipline itself, have a history. Many emerged to help understand the dramatic social changes brought about by the shift from pre-modern to modern societies.

For example, concepts like primary vs. secondary groups or community vs. association were developed to contrast the face-to-face interactions of small, traditional societies with the more formal interactions of large, modern ones.

Concepts such as stratification emerged to understand structured inequalities between social groups.

Sociological concepts are not neutral; they reflect different perspectives and debates within the discipline about how to understand society.

Early sociologists like Karl Marx emphasised class and conflict, while Emile Durkheim focused on social solidarity. Later, structural functionalists saw society as harmonious, while conflict theorists viewed it as conflict-ridden.

Some sociological perspectives start from the individual level (micro-interaction, using concepts like status and role), while others begin with larger social structures (macro-structures, using concepts like social control or stratification).

These different concepts and classifications are tools or "keys" that help us understand social reality; they are entry points for understanding, not definitive answers.

A key characteristic of sociology is the constant questioning and interrogation of its own concepts and categories, acknowledging that society itself is diverse and complex, leading to the coexistence of multiple views and definitions.

Ii Social Groups And Society

Sociology is the study of human social life, focusing on how humans interact, communicate, and form collective bodies called social groups.

A comparative perspective reveals that social groups exist in all types of societies (ancient, feudal, modern; Asian, European, African), although the specific types of groups vary across societies.

Not every collection of people is a social group. An aggregate is simply a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time without sharing a definite connection or interaction (e.g., people waiting at a bus stop or a cinema audience). These are sometimes called quasi groups.

A quasi group is an aggregate that lacks structure or organisation, and whose members may not be fully aware of belonging to a group (e.g., social classes, status groups, age groups, gender groups, crowds). However, under specific circumstances, quasi groups can become organised social groups (e.g., a social class developing into a political party, individuals of different communities forming a nation, women forming organisations through the women's movement).

This highlights that social groups can emerge, change, and transform over time.

A collection of people can be considered a social group if it possesses the following characteristics:

• Persistent interaction for continuity.
• A stable pattern in these interactions.
• A sense of belonging and identification among members (conscious awareness of the group, its rules, rituals, symbols).
• Shared interests.
• Acceptance of common norms and values.
• A definable social structure, meaning regular and repetitive patterns of interaction.

Thus, a social group consists of continuously interacting individuals who share common interests, culture, values, and norms within a particular society.

Types Of Groups

Sociologists classify social groups into different types, often contrasting those found in traditional, small-scale societies with those in modern, large-scale societies, noting the shift from intimate to more impersonal interactions. However, real-life is often a mix of these types.

Primary And Secondary Social Groups

• Primary Group: A small group characterised by intimate, face-to-face association, cooperation, and a strong sense of belonging. These groups significantly influence individuals' lives. Examples include the family, village communities, and close friends. Relationships are personal and endurin g.
• Secondary Group: Relatively larger groups with formal, impersonal, and goal-oriented relationships. Interactions are often detached and less intimate than in primary groups. Examples include schools, workplaces, government offices, and formal associations.

While primary groups are person-oriented, secondary groups are goal-oriented.

Community And Society Or Association

This typology, dating back to classical sociology, contrasts the social relationships and lifestyles of traditional/agrarian life with modern/urban life.

• Community: Refers to highly personal, intimate, and enduring relationships where individuals have considerable or total involvement (similar to primary groups). Examples: family, close friends, close-knit neighbourhoods.
• Society or Association: Refers to impersonal, superficial, and transitory relationships, typical of modern urban life, often based on calculating, rational interactions driven by commerce or industry (similar to secondary groups). Relationships are often based on contracts rather than personal knowledge.

Activity 4 suggests comparing a formal association's memorandum with a large family gathering to highlight these differences, while also noting that interactions in formal groups can sometimes become close, illustrating that sociological concepts are tools for understanding dynamic realities.

In-Groups And Out-Groups

• In-Group: A group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging, creating a feeling of "us" or "we" versus others. Membership provides identity and belonging.
• Out-Group: A group to which members of an in-group do not belong. Out-group members can sometimes face hostility from in-group members.

The definition of who belongs to which group is fluid and changes with time and context. Migrants are often initially treated as an out-group, but this can change over time as they integrate (as illustrated by M.N. Srinivas's observation on distinctions between recent and old immigrants). Activity 5 suggests exploring immigrant experiences to see how group boundaries change historically.

Peer Groups

A type of primary group, typically formed among individuals of similar age or common professional status. Peer pressure, the social influence exerted by peers, is a significant factor in shaping behaviour during adolescence and within professions.

Reference Group

A group that individuals look up to, compare themselves with, and aspire to be like. People do not necessarily belong to their reference groups but use them as sources of information on culture, lifestyle, and aspirations. In the colonial period, some middle-class Indians emulated the British as a reference group, although this imitation was often selective and gendered. Activity 6 prompts reflection on the influence of friends/peers as reference groups and the concept of peer pressure.

Social Stratification

Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between different groups within a society. These inequalities are systematic and relate to unequal access to material rewards (wealth, resources) and symbolic rewards (status, prestige).

Stratification is often visualised as layers or "strata" in a hierarchy, with more privileged groups at the top and less privileged ones at the bottom.

Inequality is central to the sociological study of stratification because it affects every aspect of individuals' and households' lives, including health, longevity, security, education, work opportunities, and political influence.

Historically, major systems of stratification have included: slavery, caste, estate (feudal Europe), and class.

Slavery is an extreme form where individuals are owned. Estates were tied to land ownership in feudalism. Sociology pays particular attention to caste and class as systems of stratification.

Caste

In a caste system, an individual's social position is primarily determined by attributes ascribed at birth (e.g., caste membership), rather than achievements during life. This ascribed status largely defines their place in the social hierarchy.

The traditional Indian caste system was a hierarchy based on ritual purity and pollution, with Brahmins at the top and Panchamas (Dalits or 'outcastes') at the bottom. The system was conceptually based on the four Varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras), but in reality, involved numerous occupation-based sub-groups (jatis).

Maintaining purity often involved endogamy (marrying within one's caste) and avoiding contact with lower castes.

Urbanisation has challenged aspects of the caste system by increasing interaction between people of different castes in public spaces (trains, restaurants), but caste discrimination persists in various forms, including private interactions (as shown in A.R. Desai's and Parmar's observations).

Modern democracy has influenced the caste system, with castes sometimes acting as interest groups and discriminated castes asserting their democratic rights, challenging the traditional rigid hierarchy.

Class

Different sociological theories explain social class:

• Marxist Theory: Defines classes based on their relationship to the means of production (owners vs. non-owners, who only own their labour power).
• Weber's Perspective: Uses the term life chances (rewards and advantages from market capacity) to describe inequality. Weber argued inequality can be based on economic class but also on social prestige and political power.
• Functionalist Theory: Views social stratification as universal and functionally necessary for society. It suggests stratification is an unconscious mechanism to ensure that important social positions are filled by the most qualified individuals. (Sociology questions whether this is always true or whether it justifies existing inequalities).

Unlike the rigid, ascribed hierarchy of the traditional caste system, the modern class system is considered more open and based on achievement. Legally, individuals can move between classes based on merit.

However, sociological studies show that social mobility is not perfect, and ascribed statuses like caste, race, and gender still impose systematic constraints on achievement, even in modern societies. Those at lower levels of stratification often face both economic and social disadvantages.

Activity 7 suggests learning about the life of former President K.R. Narayanan to discuss the concepts of ascription and achievement, caste and class in a real-life context.

Status And Role

Status and role are interconnected concepts in sociology.

A status is simply a recognised social position within a society or group. Every individual occupies multiple statuses throughout their life (e.g., student, customer, sibling, patient). The collection of statuses held by an individual at any given time is called their status set.

A status sequence refers to the series of statuses an individual occupies successively over their life course (e.g., son $\rightarrow$ father $\rightarrow$ grandfather).

Each status comes with defined rights and duties.

A role is the behavioural aspect of a status; it's the dynamic expression of the rights and duties associated with a position. While status is occupied, roles are played. A role can become institutionalised when it is regularised and formalised within society (e.g., the role of a teacher).

In simple societies, individuals tend to have fewer statuses. Modern complex societies involve individuals occupying multiple statuses.

Statuses can be:

• Ascribed Status: A social position assigned to a person at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life (e.g., age, caste, race, kinship). Ascribed status is more dominant in simple, traditional societies, defining an individual's position more completely.
• Achieved Status: A social position that a person earns or chooses voluntarily based on personal abilities, achievements, merit, or choices (e.g., educational qualifications, occupation, income). Achieved status is more characteristic of modern societies, where prestige is often based on accomplishments.

However, even in modern achievement-based societies, ascribed statuses can still influence opportunities and life chances.

Prestige is the value or ranking accorded to a particular status or social position within a society. Prestige is attached to the position itself, not necessarily the individual's performance. Ideas of prestigious occupations vary culturally and historically. Activity 8 asks about prestigious jobs in your society and the reasons for this.

Individuals learn and perform roles according to social expectations (role-taking and role-playing). Role performance involves internalising social expectations through socialisation.

Challenges related to roles include:

• Role Conflict: Occurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by a person are incompatible or contradictory (e.g., a working mother balancing the demands of her professional role and her domestic roles). While often discussed regarding women, sociological comparison shows men also face role conflicts depending on social structures (e.g., Khasi matriliny creating conflict for men). Activity 9 asks for examples of role conflict in different occupations.
• Role Stereotyping: The process of reinforcing narrow or specific expectations for roles, often based on characteristics like gender (e.g., men as breadwinners, women as homemakers).

Sociology highlights that roles and statuses are not fixed or unchanging; they are outcomes of ongoing social interaction and negotiation. Individuals are not just passive recipients of roles but exercise agency in how they perform and challenge them. Efforts are made to fight against discriminatory roles and statuses (based on caste, race, gender), although these changes are sometimes met with resistance from those who benefit from existing arrangements.

Violations of expected roles can lead to punishment, indicating that society maintains order through social control mechanisms.

Society And Social Control

Social control refers to the various methods and processes used by a society or group to regulate the behaviour of its members and maintain order. It brings individuals or groups who deviate from norms back into line.

Sociological perspectives differ in how they understand social control:

• Functionalist Perspective: Sees social control as necessary for maintaining social order, stability, and cohesion. It involves using force or reinforcing shared values and norms to regulate individual and group behaviour and mitigate tensions. Social control restrains deviance and ensures conformity for the smooth functioning of the whole society.
• Conflict Theory Perspective: Views social control primarily as a mechanism by which dominant social classes or powerful groups impose their will and interests on the rest of society. Stability, from this perspective, is seen as the dominance of one section over others, with laws and formal control mechanisms reflecting the interests of the powerful.

Social control involves techniques and strategies to regulate behaviour and can range from the ultimate sanction of physical violence by the state (police, military) to more subtle daily interactions.

In closely-knit groups (primary groups) tied by personal loyalty, potent informal control mechanisms are constantly used to manage deviation.

Social control can be based on reinforcing behaviour (sanctions) or, sometimes, even on manipulation or deception.

Social control can be:

• Formal Social Control: Codified, systematic, and often enforced by specific agencies (law, state, police, courts). It relies on formal rules and procedures and is more prominent in modern, complex societies.
• Informal Social Control: Personal, unofficial, and uncodified, enforced through everyday interactions and reactions (smiles, frowns, criticism, ridicule, body language, gossip). It is often highly effective in smaller, close-knit groups (family, religion, kinship).

A sanction is a mechanism of reward or punishment used to reinforce expected behaviour and discourage deviance. Sanctions can be positive (rewards for conformity) or negative (punishments for non-conformity or deviance).

Deviance refers to behaviours or actions that violate the norms or values held by the majority in a group or society. What is considered 'deviant' is not fixed but varies widely across different cultures and subcultures, and also changes over time within the same society (e.g., a woman astronaut being seen differently across periods).

Understanding these specific sociological terms and concepts provides a framework for analysing society more systematically and critically than common sense allows.

Activity 10 suggests looking for newspaper reports of dominant groups enforcing control and punishing perceived transgressions, highlighting the interplay of power and social control.

Activity 11 prompts reflection on the operation of informal social control in one's own life and peer group.